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Non-malignant delayed effects of repeated, long term radiation exposure are manifested in many organs—particularly bone marrow, kidneys, lungs, and the lens of the eye—by degenerative changes and impaired function; these are largely secondary to radiation-induced damage to blood vessels. The most important late effect of radiation exposure, however, is an increased incidence of cancers and leukaemia of the types that occur naturally in unexposed individuals. Statistically significant increases in leukaemia and of cancers of the thyroid, the lung, and the female breast have been demonstrated unequivocally only in populations exposed to relatively high doses (greater than 1 Gy). Non-specific life-shortening effects suggested by animal experiments have not been demonstrated in humans as yet, however.